The pyramids of Mexico take the basic principles of the traditional structure and take it to the next level. Some are stepped. Others are covered in niches. Most are topped by temples. One, in Chichen Itza, was built so that the shadow of a giant serpent appears to be slithering up its staircase during equinoxes.
Click through the gallery to see these incredible feats of ancient engineering and learn the often extraordinary stories behind them…
The pyramid on the island of La Venta in Tabasco may be the least spectacular of Mexico’s great pyramids but it is probably the oldest. Seemingly nothing more than a 100-foot-high (30m) mound of earth and clay, it is the main focal point of the ceremonial plaza of La Venta, an ancient Olmec city that flourished here between 800 and 400 BC. Archaeologists have speculated that it may well house the tomb of a great Olmec ruler.
There is certainly nothing ordinary about the giant stone heads found in the vicinity of the La Venta pyramid, however. The stone head pictured here was discovered with four other similar sculptures on a joint archaeological expedition by the National Geographic Society and the Smithsonian Institution in 1940. Carved from basalt and ranging from 5.6-11.2 feet (1.17-3.4m) high, each head is strikingly individual, leading archaeologists to believe that they may depict each of the city’s ancient rulers.
The ruins at La Venta have also revealed much about the spiritual life of the Olmec people who lived here. It was previously thought that the Olmecs only worshiped one god, a rain deity depicted as a were-jaguar, seen here carved in stone with an Olmec priest. Studies in La Venta have shown there were at least 10 distinct gods represented in Olmec art including a fire god, rain god and a corn god. One monument at La Venta features non-calendrical hieroglyphs that so far no one has been able to decipher.
The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest pyramid in the Western Hemisphere and one of two that bookend mysterious Teotihuacan, a ruined ancient city just 30 miles (48km) from Mexico City. It was one of the great cities of Mesoamerica but its origins remain unknown. Founded around 400 BC by the Totonacs, or maybe the Toltecs, we don’t even know its original name. The Aztecs called it Teotihuacan, ‘the place where the gods were created’, but it had already been abandoned for centuries when they found it in the 1400s. This photo dates from 1883, before the site was properly excavated.
There are some things we know for certain about the Pyramid of the Sun. It rises 216 feet (66m) above ground level and measures around 720 by 760 feet (220 x 230m) at its base. It was constructed of about 1,000,000 cubic yards (765,000 cubic metres) of hewed tezontle, a red coarse volcanic rock of the region. And the fifth terrace is not original. It was arbitrarily added by architect Leopoldo Batres during hastily organised restoration work between 1905-10.
Archaeologists are less certain about what the Pyramid of the Sun was used for, but the common consensus is that there was once a temple at the top. In 2011, archaeologists found three greenstone human figurines and a greenstone mask underneath the pyramid’s centre. And in 2013 a figure of the god Huehueteotl, a deity found in the pantheons of several Mesoamerican civilisations, was found in a pit underneath the platform that forms the pyramid’s summit. Here we see a traditional Teotihuacan dancer performing spring equinox rituals in front of the pyramid in 2003.
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The Pyramid of the Moon sits at the other end of Teotihuacan’s Avenue of the Dead, its shape mimicking the contours of Cerro Gordo, the mountain that sits directly behind it. At 140 feet (43m) tall it's a little smaller than the Pyramid of the Sun and having been completed around AD 250, it’s a little younger as well. Here we see the ‘Pathway of the Dead’ as it was originally known, leading to the Pyramid of the Moon in 1883, a year before archaeological excavations began.
It seems the purpose of the Pyramid of the Moon may have been a little darker too. In November 2004 archaeologists discovered 12 human skeletons surrounded by animal bones, statues, spear points and other materials. Ten of the bodies had been decapitated, suggesting that the Pyramid of the Moon may have been used for human sacrifice. “It is most likely that the ceremony created a horrible scene of bloodshed with sacrificed people and animals," said Saburo Sugiyama, one of the scientists leading the dig.
Backed by the sacred peak of Cerro Gordo, with its exterior stone staircase facing the Avenue of the Dead, archaeologists have long speculated that the Pyramid of the Moon formed part of a ritual journey to the ‘other side’. The discovery of a secret tunnel underneath the pyramid in 2017 seems to have strengthened that proposition. Another theory notes that the Pyramid of the Moon is made of seven pyramids built on top of each other and argues that each new section may have been commemorated with a major sacrificial event. As archaeologists uncover new layers, new mysteries continue to be revealed.
Barely six miles (10km) from the colonial city of Oaxaca, the UNESCO site of Monte Alban sits on a hilltop, with commanding views over the Oaxaca Valley. Founded around 100 BC, it reached its zenith under the Zapotecs around AD 500 and was continuously inhabited over a span of 1,500 years by Zapotec, Mixtec and Olmec peoples. Here you’ll find ruins of ceremonial buildings, a ball court and several ancient pyramids; the only ones built by the Zapotecs and heavily influenced by the pyramids of Teotihuacan to the north.
Mexican archaeologist Leopoldo Batres led the first serious excavation of the site in 1902 (pictured). It was his workers who cleared away centuries of debris to reveal the impressive South Platform, the largest pyramid in Monte Alban and used for astronomical observations, as well as the smaller North Platform that Batres speculated was used for public ceremonies and political speeches. He published findings and opinions in a book called Explorations to Mount Alban, creating much excitement about the site both at home and abroad.
It wasn’t until 1931 that Monte Alban’s greatest treasures were revealed when the Mexican archaeologist Alfonso Caso unearthed ‘Tomb Seven’. The earliest-known North American necropolis, Caso discovered it had also been re-used over the centuries, confirming that there had been at least five major phases in the long history of Monte Alban. It was one of the richest too, a veritable treasure trove of priceless grave offerings including a turquoise-covered skull (pictured). The skull is currently on display with all the other treasures from Tomb Seven at the Museo de las Culturas de Oaxaca.
Located deep in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve about 22 miles (35km) from the Guatemala border, Calakmul was the capital of the fearsome Snake (K'naan) Kingdom. It was one of the largest and most powerful city-states in the Maya world with an estimated population of over 50,000 and political control of over a million inhabitants. The kingdom reached its peak in the Classic Maya era (AD 250-850) as it battled with Tikal in Guatemala for hegemony – and the most impressive pyramid – in the southern lowlands of this part of Mexico.
Calakmul fell into decline around AD 900 and was quickly reclaimed by the voracious jungle. It was discovered again in 1931 by American botanist Cyrus Lundell who had been told about the site by two workers who harvested chicle there, a kind of sap used in chewing gum at the time. Excavations began in 1932 (pictured) and over the intervening decades more than 6,000 ancient structures have been identified, including the imposing great pyramid. Rising 148 feet (45m) above the jungle, it is the tallest and largest pyramid in the Yucatan, with a base that covers almost five acres.
While the Great Pyramid has been largely restored, many of the city’s other ancient structures remain hidden and unexplored. In 2004, over 70 years after the city was initially rediscovered, archaeologists uncovered a series of amazingly well-preserved painted murals at the Chiik Naab acropolis. Rather than the usual political, ceremonial or religious themes, these murals portray the typical daily activities of ordinary Maya, leading archaeologists to wonder what other treasures remain hidden in the jungle.
More mysterious findings inside the ancient temples of the Americas
According to an old Mexican folktale, the Pyramid of the Magician was built overnight by an enchanted dwarf who was hatched from an egg. After completing the task with the help of his sorceress mother, the dwarf overthrew the existing king and became the new ruler of Uxmal himself. Sadly, the reality is a little less fanciful. The 90.5 foot (28m) pyramid was built around AD 569 and added to another five times. It is topped by a temple with a doorway in the shape of Chac, the Mayan rain god famous for his hooked nose.
American adventurer John Lloyd Stephens ‘rediscovered’ Uxmal in 1840 by following a rough map given to him by a man named Simon Peon who owned a large tract of land near the ruins. Excavations finally began in 1929 and were plagued almost immediately by mysterious goings on. Mayan workers who spent the night on the site told of being kept awake by aluxob, mischievous sprites not unlike Irish leprechauns, claiming that the aluxob threw stones at them until they made an offering of tobacco to appease the spirits of the forest.
Today the Pyramid of the Magician and the other ceremonial buildings in Uxmal like the Nunnery Quadrangle, House of the Governor and the House of the Turtles are regarded as the pinnacle of the Puuc architectural style, which flourished in the Late Classic Period between AD 600–900. The exquisitely finished cut stonework and profusion of symbolic motifs is seen as proof of Uxmal’s wealth and power. If you happen to visit on 12 April or 31 August, you’ll notice that the doorway into the temple at the top of the pyramid aligns perfectly with the setting sun.
Located 45 minutes northwest of Tulum, this community was once home to one of ancient Mayan’s grandest cities, established around AD 600. White limestone sacbeob (roads) radiated out from the city to all corners of the Yucatan, including one 60 miles (100km) long that headed in a straight line to the ancient city of Yaxuna. Coba is home to three pyramids, the grandest of which is Ixmoja, also known as Nohoch Mul, the big mound. It reaches a height of 138 feet (42m), making it the second-tallest Maya structure on the Yucatan peninsula and the only one you can still climb.
Those who make the treacherous climb are treated to the sight of two diving gods carved over the doorway of the temple at the top. These diving or descending gods are unique to the Maya of the Yucatan peninsula and are thought to be associated with the Ah Muzen Cab, the Maya god of bees. Honey was a staple export in Mayan trade between Coba and Tulum. The honey was used as a sweetener, an antibiotic and as the main ingredient in balche, a honey drink similar to mead.
Coba has two other pyramids of note. La Iglesia (The Church) is the second highest at 74 feet (22.5m) and crowned with a small temple where archaeologists discovered a cache of jade figurines, ceramic vases, pearls and conch shells. There's also Xaibe (pictured), a curiously conical-shaped pyramid named after the Yucatec Maya word for crossroads. It sits at the crossroad of four major sacbeob (ancient Mayan paved roads), so archaeologists believe the structure acted as a watchtower. The entire site is scattered with incredible stelae – long stone slabs carved with images and hieroglyphics describing the city’s sociopolitical organisation and major historical events.
Deep in the verdant mountains of Mexico’s Chiapas region, the Mayan ruins at Palenque feel like they belong in an Indiana Jones movie. Here the jungle presses in on all sides and the machete-wielding gardeners face a constant battle keeping the impressive site clear. In many ways this ancient city doesn’t look that much different from when Spanish explorer Jose Calderon rediscovered Palenque in 1784. Or when this illustration was commissioned in 1890.
Just as the ancient city was, the ruins of Palenque are dominated by the 237 foot (27m) high Pyramid of the Inscriptions. It was built by K'inich Janaab' Pakal (Pakal the Great) in AD 682 and he was interred under the pyramid in the most grandiose crypt and sarcophagus known outside ancient Egypt. The pyramid gets its name from the hieroglyphic texts on its inner walls, the most extensive Maya inscription that has survived.
In 1952 the Pyramid of the Inscriptions offered up more of its secrets. Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz had noticed a great carved stone slab on the floor at the lowest part of the temple. Upon lifting it up he discovered a body wearing a richly ornamented jade death mask. It was Pakal the Great himself. Today the stunning mask (pictured) is on permanent display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The Pyramid of the Niches in El Tajin lies in the humid jungles of the state of Veracruz and is as enigmatic as it is beautiful. Historians and archaeologists estimate it was built during the 8th century but they are not exactly sure who by. The most widely accepted theory is that it was the ancestors of the Totonac and Huastec Indigenous peoples who live in the area to this day. They may have also been the first civilisation to cultivate the orchids that produce vanilla.
El Tajin was abandoned after a marauding Aztec army of eagle and jaguar knights invaded and pillaged the area around AD 1200. It remained hidden and forgotten until 1785 when a Spanish official stumbled upon the site while looking for illegal tobacco plantations. The legend of this mysterious ruined city with its enigmatic pyramid spread far and wide, enticing many European travellers and explorers, including this chap in 1913, to come and marvel at its intriguing sophistication.
The architecture of the Pyramid of the Niches is unique in Mesoamerica. It is built in a step-and-fret style and decorated with elaborate carved reliefs on the columns and frieze. It takes its name after the niches that cover each of its four sides. There are 365 recesses all told, each 23.6 inches (60cm) deep, suggesting that the pyramid was used as a kind of astronomical calendar to track the days of the year. The astronomical and symbolic significance of the pyramid was noted by UNESCO when it listed El Tajin in 1992.
With its pleasing symmetry, tidy stepped platforms and crowning temple, Kukulkan is one of the most instantly recognisable pyramids in Mexico. It is in fact, a calendar in stone, with 91 steps on each side of the pyramid. Add the total number of steps with the temple at the top and you have 365, the number of days in the Mayan solar year. It’s an extraordinary feat of engineering, especially when you consider that when it was built between AD 1050 and 1300 the population was dwindling and Toltec Maya civilisation in decline.
Chichen Itza was finally abandoned in 1440 and lay forgotten until intrepid American explorer John Lloyd Stephens ‘rediscovered’ the site in the 1840s and fired the world’s imagination with his book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. Soon other explorers and photographers descended on Chichen Itza, including Austrian-born Teobert Maler, who took this photo in 1892. In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatan, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the land it was on and explored the site at will. Thompson donated most of the artefacts he found to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University.
One of the most remarkable features of the Kukulkan pyramid is its alignment with the sun during the spring and fall equinoxes. As the sun sets, a shadow in the shape of a serpent’s body appears on the northern staircase, as seen in this photo. The shadow ‘connects’ to the huge stone serpent head at the bottom of the staircase, creating the illusion of a huge slithering snake. This is Kukulkan, a feathered serpent god and a bringer of rain and winds.
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